1.1 Developments in East Asia

After centuries of warfare, China was reunited under the Sui and Tang dynasties. Afterwards, the Song dynasty was able to build upon the stability created under those two dynasties and strengthen China's government. The Chinese government was unique for the era, as its large bureaucracy was based on merit.  To help build this large bureaucracy, many took the Civil Service Exam, which began under the Han Dynasty and reemerged under the Tang and Song.  Chinese men would spend years learning the Chinese classics like The Analects by the famous Chinese philosopher Confucius.  Based on their abilities, they would take a series of exams that would award them greater power and influence.  A person who passed any one level of these exams entered a new social class: the scholar gentry.
The stability of the Tang and Song Dynasties allowed for the Chinese to economically develop. A lot of this development was based on their new technologies, regional trade, and their growing dominance. China's economy was strengthened by several factors:
  • Grand Canal: A link between southern and northern China that promoted interregional trade
  • Gunpowder: An explosive that led to the development of fireworks and guns
  • Champa rice: A type of rice native to Vietnam that allowed for multiple harvests each year; more harvests meant more food, which allowed China's population to increase
  • Tribute system: The Chinese government was paid a tax, called a tribute, by foreign powers, such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. They paid money, food, and/or labor to avoid going to war with China.
  • Paper: China's development of paper allowed the government to become more efficient. Paper money spread throughout the empire.
The social structure of China was very stable. Part of this hierarchy comes from the fact that it endured since the Han dynasty. It was and is a patriarchal society where men dominate most systems of power.  Though women were charged with raising the children, they rarely were given political or economic roles.  This is exemplified in the process of foot binding. Much like modern-day cosmetics, foot binding was done to make women more desirable for men as well as a sign of wealth
Due to its power and proximity, China has had a long-lasting impact on the development of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Japan is a group of islands that is unique in it religion of Shintoism, stories like The Tale of Genji, and a unique feudal hierarchy.  The Emperor and Shogun (military leader) would rule over various Daimyo (landowners) who would all hire Samurai to protect their land.  The Samurai would practice a unique brand of chivalry called the Bushido Code.  Though feudal and largely decentralized, Japan was able to develop its own unique society. Though Buddhism did spread to Japan, the Japanese government did not embrace the civil service system nor did the society accept Confucianism.
Korea has arguably been the most influenced by China. Korea adopted Confucianism, Buddhism, and the civil service system.  However, the aristocracy in Korea did not allow for social mobility or true unity of the Korean peninsula.
Vietnam has tried very hard to maintain its own independence from China.  Though closely translating to ‘southern people’, the Vietnamese do not think of themselves as Chinese.  They do not have as much of a hierarchical society; rather life is dominated by villages and smaller nuclear families.  Though Confucianism and Buddhism spread there, the impact of Confucianism is limited.

1.2 Developments in Dar-al-Islam

Islam was founded in the early 7th century and spread quickly afterwards. Muslims believe Muhammad to be the last true prophet of Allah (Arabic for god). Islam has blended the role of religion and government together so well that it spread from India to Spain within a few hundred years. This Islamic world is often referred to as Dar al-Islam, or House of Islam.

Over a period of a few hundred years, Islam spread from its place of origin in the Arabian Peninsula all the way to modern Spain in the west and northern India in the east. Islam traveled through these regions in many ways. Sometimes it was carried in great caravans or sea vessels traversing vast trade networks on land and sea, and other times it was transferred through military conquest and the work of missionaries. As Islamic ideas and cultures came into contact with new societies, they were expressed in unique ways and ultimately took on diverse forms.
The spread of Islam through merchants, missionaries, and pilgrims was very different in nature. These kinds of exchanges affected native populations slowly and led to more conversion to Islam. As Islamic ideas traveled along various trade and pilgrimage routes, they mingled with local cultures and transformed into new versions and interpretations of the religion.

Islamic expansion across North Africa and through the Middle East saw more connections because of trade.  Muslim caliphates conquered and often tolerated different beliefs as long as non-Muslims paid a tax called a jizya. The Muslim expansion was stopped in France at the Battle of Tours. The Islamic region of Spain was referred to Al-Andalus.

After the death of Prophet Muhammad, the Islamic world was guided by Caliphs, the last of whom was Ali, Muhammad’s son in law. Ali’s death split the Muslim world into two, with Husain forming and leading one group (Abbasids) under the premise that only blood descendants of Ali, while the other group (Umayyad) came to be known as Sunnis as they believed that any Muslim could become a leader of the Islamic world. The Umayyad Dynasty ruled for nearly 100 years from 661 to 750 CE until they were overthrown by the  Abbasids. The Abbasids ruled, ruled for nearly 500 years (750 AD to 1258 CE) before the arrival of the Mongols in 1258 AD.
The Abbasids were intent on differentiating themselves from their Umayyad predecessors, though they still had a lot in common. Abbasid leadership was also dynastic and centralized. However, they changed the social hierarchy by constructing a more inclusive government in a more cosmopolitan capital city, Baghdad. The distinction between Arab Muslims and non-Arab Muslims diminished, with Persian culture exerting a greater influence on the Abbasid court.

Under the Abbasids, Islamic art and culture flourished. They are famous for inaugurating the Islamic golden age. Religious scholars, called ulema, developed more defined religious institutions and took on judicial duties and developed systems of law. It was also during Abbasid rule that many people converted to Islam, for a multitude of reasons including sincere belief and avoiding paying taxes levied on non-Muslims. As a result, Islamic culture spread over the Abbasids’ vast territory.
The Umayyad and the Abbasid Caliphates helped develop and spread Islam from Spain to India. As the Abbasid Caliphate falls to the Mongol invaders, new Islamic powers emerged:

Egyptian Mamluks: Slave soldiers that won political control of several Muslim states during the Middle Ages. Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517.

Seljuk Turks: Ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 1000s to 1300s. The Seljuks migrated from the northern Iranian provinces in Central Asia into mainland Iran, formerly known as Persia.

Delhi Sultanate: Central Asian Turkish warlords established this Muslim kingdom in northern India at the turn of the 1200s and it continued until their conquest by the Mughals.

1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia

South Asia
South Asia is the region below the Kush mountains and Himalayas. Since the fall of the Mauryan and Gupta Empires, South Asia has been broken into various kingdoms.  Various Hindu Rajput Kingdoms emerged in northern India, keeping a centralized power from emerging for hundreds of years. They competed with each other, allowing for Islamic armies to start to expand into Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Delhi Sultanate emerged from this expansion as a powerful kingdom for nearly 300 years.  United by Islam and funded by the Silk Road, the Delhi Sultans were able to hold back the Mongol expansion into South Asia.
This region, dominated by the modern-state of India, claims one of the world’s oldest faiths and a tradition of regional trade.
The Hindu caste system created a hierarchy of power that was both religious and inherited. The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work) and dharma (the Hindi word for religion, but here it means duty) is generally accepted to be more than 3,000 years old. Hindus, born into a caste, typically had to remain in that caste until their death and hopeful reincarnation.  This promoted stability, though it also allowed for the stagnation that emerges when there is no competition for power.
Though still predominantly Hindu, South Asia’s development was largely impacted by Buddhism and Islam. Hinduism is a polytheistic faith that is probably best known because of its belief in samsara, or reincarnation. The vast majority of Indians are Hindu. However, unlike many monotheistic faiths, Hinduism is very decentralized. Islam, spreading from the Middle East, is a monotheistic faith that is more cohesive since it blended political leadership with religion. By 1450, Islam had spread to northern India and helped the Delhi Sultanate create a stable regional empire.
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia is made up of the modern nations of Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia, as well as others. This region has developed within a mountainous and jungle environment, where such geography makes a large empire impossible. The people of Southeast Asia have been heavily influenced by China to the north and the trade with the west within the Indian Ocean Trade Network. Before the modern states of Southeast Asia, there were various empires, both land-based and sea-based, that helped unite the people politically, economically, and religiously.
The Khmer Empire was a powerful state in Southeast Asia, formed by people of the same name, lasting from 802 CE to 1431 CE. At its peak, the land-based empire covered much of what today is Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and southern Vietnam. Its capital, Angkor Wat, was originally a Hindu temple, developed over time into a vast Buddhist temple.   

The Srivijaya Empire was a Indonesian Hindu empire based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important center for trade between China and India as well as for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century.  

The Majapahit Kingdom was a smaller Buddhist kingdom that controlled the shipping lane leading to and from the Strait of Malacca.
Southeast Asia benefited economically from the Indian Ocean Trade Network, while it also became very diverse.  Islamic merchants and Sufi missionaries (a mystical sect of Sunni Muslims)  brought their faith to Indonesia, making it the most populated Islamic nation in the world today.  

1.4 Developments in the Americas

Because of the limited population and large amount of land in the Americas, Native Americans were able to live in smaller, regional tribes. Some of these tribes developed into larger civilizations and even empires.
North America
The Mississippian culture is a civilization in modern-day southeastern United States. The Mississippian people created large earthen mounds demonstrating their unity to build large monumental structures. Instead of tracing family lineage through the father’s family, the Mississippian culture was matrilineal, passing social standing through the mother’s blood line. The Mississippian culture, however, did not form a large empire.
Mesoamerica
The Maya and Aztecs each dominated a region of Mesoamerica between 250 CE and 1550 CE. The Maya thrived in the rainforest of the Yucatan peninsula. Largely a kingdom of city-states that worked for mutual benefit, the Maya were able to build large temples, cities, and trade networks.  Because of internal conflict and lack of food, the Maya empire collapsed around 900 CE. Before they collapsed, the Maya thrived, building a famous accurate calendar, a complex writing system, and pyramids that rival those of the Middle East. 
The Aztec Empire came years after the collapse of the Maya and occupied modern-day Mexico City and south.  Their capital, Tenochtitlan, is where Mexico City is today.  The city was enormous, housing nearly 200,000 people at a time when London had only 50,000!  The Aztecs built a series of great pyramids in their city, demonstrating their power and authority.  The amazing part of this city is that it was built on Lake Texcoco. Aztecs would build chinampas, or floating gardens, in the lake to grow a bounty of food.  These chinampas would be filled in over time, creating a larger and larger city. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice. Many of the temples in Tenochtitlan were used for these rituals. The people sacrificed were either captured in battle or were tributes given to the Aztecs by neighboring city-states that did not want to be attacked. This process of human sacrifice was both part of their polytheistic religion and part of the political rule of the region. The Aztecs were very militaristic, had a thriving merchant class, and promoted education for many of its men. 
South America
The Incan Empire thrived around the same time as the Aztecs. They dominated a north to south region along the Andes Mountains in South America. They had were quite different from the Aztecs. They were much more of a united monarchy, while the Aztecs were largely a city-state empire controlled by Tenochtitlan. While the Aztecs sacrificed humans, the Inca sacrificed llamas. While the Aztecs had a vast trade network, the Inca believed in state-led economy. The Aztecs had city-states pay a tribute in humans to Tenochtitlan, while the Inca required a labor tax called mit’a. In this system, for example, the numerous roads that led to the capital of  Cuzco were built by Incans who would work for about 1-2 years. They were not slaves, rather they paid their tax, or mit’a, with labor instead of money. While the Aztecs never formed a written language, the Inca created a system of knotted strings used to record numerical information called quipu. 
However, both the Aztec and Inca were animists and polytheists. Animism is a religious belief that objects and weather possess a distinct spiritual essence. This is why they both have sun gods (Huitzilopochtli and Inti). Polytheism means the belief in many gods: both the Aztecs and Inca had hundreds of gods.

1.5 Developments in Africa

Much like the Americas before 1450, Africa was largely tribal or clan-based. Clans are kin-based networks where many people within the community are related. Led by a chief, these smaller communities work with and have conflict with other communities in their area. Islam, the Trans-Saharan Trade Network and the Indian Ocean Trade Network are examples of unifying factors for many of these clans. Around 1,000 CE and later, many empires did emerge. These kingdoms brought unity, continuity, and complexity to the regions they controlled.
Between 300 and 1000 CE, Ghana became involved in Western African trade by exchanging gold for salt with North African Berbers (nomads) who were the middle men with Europe. There was no state religion, and the empire was not as unified as those that would follow.
Between 1200 and 1400 CE, Mali replaced Ghana in Western Africa. Unlike Ghana, Mali was united by the Islamic faith. Mansa Musa was a famous and powerful king of Mali who built mosques and famous libraries in the capital of Timbuktu. Mansa Musa traveled the Trans-Saharan Trade Network on his hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca in Arabia, exposing those along the way to Mali’s wealth and power.
Between 1400 and 1500 CE, Songhai conquered then replaced Mali. Songhai, however, would collapse due to the slave trade.
This Swahili Coast is along the eastern coast of Africa, facilitating its use of both the Trans-Saharan Trade Network and the Indian Ocean Trade Network.  Its city-states were united in trade and variations of the Bantu language.  Its largest city-state, Great Zimbabwe, was protected by a large wall demonstrating the unity of its people.

Ethiopia was the single Christian kingdom in a region rapidly converting to Islam.
These African societies had many shared characteristics. Family and communal activities were the centerpiece of the clan or village. Music and dancing were a common way of both entertainment but also veneration of the dead.  Most Sub-Saharan societies did not have a written language rather passed on their history, literature, and culture through oral tradition. Griots were storytellers who would make kings famous for generations.

1.6 Developments in Europe

After the fall of Rome, Europe, specifically Western Europe, was dominated by smaller kingdoms and regional powers. Between 1200 and 1450, many of the modern states today were formed as powerful kingdoms replaced localism.

In places like France and England, the people were feudal. Feudalism is a political, economic, and social hierarchy which helped organize land, work, and people's roles.

At the top is the monarch, often a king. He basically “owned” all of the land and would grant land, called fiefs, to elites called lords. The lords would then grant some of their own land to other individuals. Those who were granted land were called vassals. Vassals owed food, labor, and military service to the lords above them. Many kings and lords, as well as the church, would hire knights to protect their wealth and power.  
Land was sometimes worked on by those who were not the lords to others. These serfs were not slaves but owned no land, thus were very tied to the lord who granted them permission to work the land. Serfs and the manors they worked on would practice the three-field system, where the farmers were careful to not overuse the soil by rotating wheat, beans, and/or let land lay fallow (unused) during the harvest.
Between 1200 and 1450, regional kingdoms of France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire became solidified. In the beginning, each power was tied to the Catholic Church and feudalistic. However, over time, the Catholic Church began to lose influence. Feudalism also weakened as monarchs like King Philip II of France created a larger bureaucracy that worked with a legislative body called the Estates-General.

The Holy Roman Empire laid where modern day Germany is today. Unlike France, regional kingdoms with powerful princes and the church had a lot of power versus the central government. The Concordat of Worms (Worms is a German city) allowed the Pope of the Catholic Church to appoint bishops in the Holy Roman Empire but gave the king the ability to veto those choices. 

Unlike France, English kings were being checked by the nobility. King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta, giving the people more rights in trials and taxation. The English Parliament will eventually form to be a strong legislative body.  Over time, the competition for trade, land, and resources led the English and French to war. The Hundred Years War is an example of this type of conflict. Conflicts like this created a new spirit of nationalism and an end to feudalism.
This era saw a lot of religious tension in Europe. The predominantly Christian Europe saw the spread of Islam up the Iberian peninsula as a threat. Charles The Hammer Martel stopped its advance at the Battle of Tours in southern France. By 1492, the Catholic Church had expelled the Muslims from Spain in the Reconquista. 

The Catholic Church started the Crusades in order to take the Holy Land back from the Muslims. The series of Crusades saw the Crusaders also attacking the Orthodox Christians in Constantinople. In the end, the Crusades failed to win back Jerusalem, rather it just weakened the Catholic Church and increased the power of regional monarchs. However, this cross-cultural contact did slowly awaken Europe to the science and mathematics that the Islamic world had been developing.
By 1450, Europe saw an increase in literacy, urbanization, and connection to the global community. At one time, the only literate people of Europe were monks and other men tied to the Catholic Church. Gutenberg’s printing press will change this. At one time, Europe was closed from trade with the rest of the world. The Crusades and Mediterranean trade will end this. This will see the beginning of the Renaissance.

The Renaissance, or “rebirth”, was a period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic activity following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place from the 1300s through the 1600s, the Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. Some of the greatest authors, scientists and artists in human history thrived during this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and cultures to European commerce.

1.7 Comparison in the Period 1200 to 1450