5.1 The Enlightenment
Reason & Individualism
During this new era, people began looking to humans, rather than a deity, to solve their problems. That is a major change from life in medieval Europe. The use of reason led to new political ideas about people, natural rights, and the function of government.
According to John Locke, people are born with a tabula rasa (“blank slate”), meaning everyone is born equal and with individual freedom. In terms of natural rights, Locke discussed life, liberty, and property as core rights that a government cannot take away without due cause. Regarding government, philosophers stated a social contract involves people giving up some rights in exchange for living in a community under a shared authority or government.
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Anytime new ideas challenge society's tradition tension develops. As the Enlightenment ideas spread from France and Britain, it influenced people that saw themselves as having natural rights being violated by a king that has no right to rule.
Enlightenment ideas challenged the status quo and established traditions, such as patriarchy, slavery, and a divine right to rule. Those traditions often supported, politically and/or economically, established governments, and those governments would fight to keep them. In some instances, this led to revolution.
Enlightenment ideas challenged the status quo and established traditions, such as patriarchy, slavery, and a divine right to rule. Those traditions often supported, politically and/or economically, established governments, and those governments would fight to keep them. In some instances, this led to revolution.
Nationalism is often equated with extreme patriotism, and in many ways, the various revolutions that occurred between 1750 and 1900 were partially fueled by nationalism. However, nationalistic belief usually involves a sense of superiority over other nations. In the late 1800s, the creation of Italian and German states were driven by nationalism.
Philosophers to Know & Why
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Enlightenement and Reform
Notions of equality, natural rights, and the government receiving its authority from people (instead of a deity), influenced some people on the margins of society to see those ideas applied to their life. Enslaved, women, and serfs all wanted equality from those Enlightenment and religious ideas. The enslaved wanted to see slavery ended, and by 1900, it mostly had. Serfdom essentially ended by 1750.
Women had to continue fighting for suffrage (voting rights) into the 20th century. Suffrage did expand to poorer and less educated males throughout 1750-1900. An important example of women demanding suffrage took place at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848). This convention, led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, used ideas regarding natural rights and specifically applied them to suffrage for women. In fact, they rewrote a portion of the Declaration of Independence to include women: “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal…”
Women had to continue fighting for suffrage (voting rights) into the 20th century. Suffrage did expand to poorer and less educated males throughout 1750-1900. An important example of women demanding suffrage took place at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848). This convention, led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, used ideas regarding natural rights and specifically applied them to suffrage for women. In fact, they rewrote a portion of the Declaration of Independence to include women: “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal…”
Reason and Religion
Enlightenment philosophers and religious leaders did not necessarily agree on various issues. Many Enlightenment philosophers followed Deism, which involves believing in a creator that does not upset the natural order. It would be ridiculous from the Deist perspective to have a divine being rise from the dead. This is also a huge change from the religious beliefs in medieval Europe.
5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions
The Enlightenment ideas of natural rights, separation of powers in government, and social contract influenced oppressed people to fight for equality. These people formed alliances with one another based on a variety of commonalities, such as language, religion, social standing, and territory. During 1750-1900, people from around the world challenged established government structures, and this led to a great deal of political, economic, and social change. For many of the following Revolutions, Enlightenment ideas directly influenced their beginning.
The American Revolution
The American Revolution involved the British North American colonies rebelling against the empire of Great Britain. Great Britain had been exerting its influence more and more across North America, including battling France in the Seven Years’ War for dominance in North America. When the Seven Years’ War increased Britain's debts, it caused Great Britain to tax their North American colonies.
The colonies were used to being left alone by the mother country, but the new taxes upset the colonists. Initially, the colonists wanted representation in Parliament to influence tax decisions. Phrases like, “No Taxation without Representation” were commonplace in the colonies. |
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After being unable to find common ground regarding representation and taxation, colonial leaders issued the Declaration of Independence. This document was inspired by Enlightenment ideals, and it listed a series of grievances the colonists had with the British monarchy. Along with French assistance, the colonists won the war and their independence. The United States established a constitutional government, leaving the idea of monarchy behind.
The French Revolution
Similar to the American Revolution, debt from the Seven Years’ War (as well as the American Revolution) forced the French monarchy to call the Estates General for the first time in a long time. The Estates General consists of Three Estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. Each estate had equal voting power, thus causing the commoners (97% of the population) to be outvoted and get taken advantage of regarding taxation.
The commoners, also known as the Third Estate, formed the National Assembly in defiance of the Estates General. The National Assembly sought to undo a lot of what the Estates General did, such as altering the tax code. With tension rising with the French monarchy, members of the Third Estate stormed the Bastille in order to acquire weaponry as well as undermine the authority of the monarchy. This forced the King to accept the National Assembly as the legitimate government.
Similar to the American Revolution, the French Revolutionary leaders issued a guiding document that had clear Enlightenment principles. The Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen sought to guide the French people toward natural rights, equality, and a representative government that derived its authority from the people. This new government, however, had its own problems. As with any new government, there are a lot of issues to work out. Due to its instability from radical revolutionaries, the Reign of Terror occurred that saw lots of people accused of treason and beheaded by guillotine. Science and reason, meant to propel human flourishing, were applied to efficiently killing people, of which the guillotine was a byproduct. |
Further spiraling toward chaos, Napoleon emerged to put order back into French society. He passed a law code, Code Napoleon, that includes making all male citizens equal (no more primogeniture) and protection of private property. Despite his law code, Napoleon crowned himself as emperor, which in many ways ended the French Revolution.
Haitian Revolution
Haitians saw the relative success of the revolutions in America and France in overthrowing the existing government. With this inspiration, enslaves of the French colony of Haiti revolted against the white masters in 1791. Toussaint L’Ouverture led maroon communities (various groups across the island) against the French authorities.
Haiti established equality and citizenship for all the former enslaved. In a unique moment, leaders redistributed land to the formerly enslaved and free black people. Most places that experienced abolition did not provide the same economic freedom for the newly freed person. France did not like this, betraying L’Ouverture’s leadership, and tried to bring Haiti back into the French empire by any means necessary.
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However, the French government was experiencing its own external pressure. Napoleon had sought to conquer large parts of Europe, which requires money and attention. This meant French forces would not have the full support needed to take back Haiti, thus Haiti became the first black led country in the western hemisphere.
Creole Revolutions
Since Latin America is generally associated with Spanish colonies in the Americas, there is also a heavy influence of Catholicism. Within this society, a hierarchy based on race and ethnicity developed, with a rivalry between Creoles (whites born in the Americas) and Peninsulares (whites born in Spain). The Spanish monarchy favored Peninsulares to the frustration of Creoles, and Creoles wanted more political power and economic freedom. In addition to Peninsulares and Creoles, other members of the Spanish colonial social hierarchy were not happy with their position. Mestizos (combination of white and Native ancestry) wanted political power as well.
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Simon Bolivar guided this diverse independence movement through Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru. Yet unlike the American, French, and Haitian revolutions, the Latin American revolutions did not coalesce into a single country afterwards. Bolivar, the leader of this revolution, wrote the Jamaica Letter (1815), which advocated independence for the Latin American nations. He started to identify “Spanish Americans” as a group distinct from the Spaniards back in Europe. After the dust settled, Creoles created many new constitutional governments in the former Latin America. They abolished slavery in their new governments, but they continued to oppress Indigenous communities and women.
New Zealand Wars
In the mid-1800s, Britain controlled large parts of the world, but most natives in New Zealand did not like being under British control. The Maori tribes had lived in New Zealand since around 1200 C.E. For hundreds of years, the Maori tribes ruled the New Zealand territory. In 1840, Great Britain annexed New Zealand as part of their quest for global dominance. This is intertwined with industrialization and imperialism because industrialized nations were always looking for new territory that they could harvest for resources as well as potential buyers for their factory-finished products. Over time, Britain increased control over New Zealand.
In response to the increased control from Great Britain, Maori tribes rebelled sporadically over a 40 year period. This forced the various tribes to see a common identity amongst themselves, increasing nationalism. By sharing many common traits, such as territory, Maori tribes banded together against Britain. Alas, the powers of industrialization were too much, and Britain won by 1872.
In response to the increased control from Great Britain, Maori tribes rebelled sporadically over a 40 year period. This forced the various tribes to see a common identity amongst themselves, increasing nationalism. By sharing many common traits, such as territory, Maori tribes banded together against Britain. Alas, the powers of industrialization were too much, and Britain won by 1872.
Unification of Italy
Once the Roman Empire fell in 476, the region of Italy was divided among several small kingdoms and city states. The people among those kingdoms did share common religion and language, but they were not a united country.
The growing influence of nationalism led Count Camillo di Cavour to start the process that would unify Italy into one nation. He practiced Realpolitik in order to unify Italy. Cavour used an alliance with France to force Austria, a major opponent to Italian unification, to not stop Italian unification. He also received help from Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi to unify Italy.
The growing influence of nationalism led Count Camillo di Cavour to start the process that would unify Italy into one nation. He practiced Realpolitik in order to unify Italy. Cavour used an alliance with France to force Austria, a major opponent to Italian unification, to not stop Italian unification. He also received help from Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi to unify Italy.
Unification of Germany
Similar to Italian unification, Germany unified due to the growing influence of nationalism using the practice of Realpolitik. In this instance, Otto von Bismarck manipulated a series of three wars (involving France, Prussia, and Austria) to slowly gain land for the German nation. Nationalism continued to grow in Germany from their founding in 1871 to the World Wars of the 20th century.
Nationalism in the Balkans
The Ottoman Empire was slowly on the decline, mostly due to its reluctance to industrialize. Also, the Ottoman Empire had a huge amount of diversity, and many of those ethnically unique peoples wanted independence. Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, also influenced by nationalism, wanted their own nations, separate from the Ottomans.
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5.3 Beginning of the Industrial Revolution
Since the beginning of history, humans have interacted with the environment, for better or for worse. In some ways, the environment influenced human activity, and in other ways, humans shaped the environment. As industrialization began, human activity radically altered the environment. The environment did provide necessary elements for the start of the Industrial Revolution.
- Agricultural productivity increased in the 1700s with new techniques such as crop rotation, seed drill, and using the potato as a major caloric source.
- Coal, iron, and timber provided necessary natural resources to create and sustain factories.
- Close proximity to waterways, rivers, and canals provided factories with sources of power, transportation, and places to discharge waste.
Other factors that started the Industrial Revolution included urbanization, legal protection of private property, and wealth from colonies. As factories started to grow, people moved in large numbers to cities, and this process intensified as more factories were established. Governments created laws to protect property, and that protection enabled wealthy individuals to make major investments in factories. Lastly, nations that industrialized benefited from their colonies by extracting wealth and resources from them; the mother countries accumulated capital and resources.
All of these factors were found in Great Britain, where the Industrial Revolution began. In addition to the previous causes of industrialization, the Enclosure Act restricted land ownership in rural areas, Britain had lots of colonies which provided a market to sell goods and places to extract natural resources, and Britain had an abundance of coal to power their factories. |
The Factory System
A major component of the Industrial Revolution is the transition from farms to factories. Before the Industrial Revolution, people often grew their own food, lived outside the city, and interacted with each other throughout the day. The Industrial Revolution radically changed that way of life. The factory involved having labor and production taking place in a single location. People had to move to the factory location, which was mostly in urban areas and close to rivers. This created a concentrated amount of people in a specific area. Also, as part of a desire for efficiency, workers concentrated on one specific skill or task in the factory. This specialization of labor, like an assembly line, saw workers focus on one thing in order to maximize production. This also meant workers relied on the factory system for finished products since they no longer possessed the skills necessary to produce a finished good.
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5.4 Spread of the Industrial Revolution
As other countries noticed the benefits of industrialization that first occurred in Great Britain, industrialization spread to Europe, the United States, Russia, and Japan. Once Germany unified in 1871, they became a leader in coal and steel production.
The United States, Russia, and Japan followed Europe’s lead on industrializing. The U.S. population grew through immigration throughout the 1800s, so they had a large labor source. Immigration to the U.S. was generally from Ireland, China, and Germany in the mid 1800s, but by the late 1800s, immigration expands to include southern and eastern Europe as well as Japan.
This translated into the U.S. being a leading industrial power by 1900 because it provided cheap labor sources for factories, especially for immigrants settling in the northeastern part of the United States. Russia used government-led industrialization, focusing on transportation, such as the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroads. Japan industrialized for defensive purposes in order to protect their traditions.
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Steam-powered production increased in Europe and the United States. Steam-powered technology led to increased production of goods in factories, and it allowed steamships to significantly improve transportation speeds and reliability. This allowed goods to be shipped globally, and it led places that initially did not industrialize to change.
Middle Eastern and Asian countries did continue to produce goods, but they did not produce nearly as much as industrialized countries. Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia, iron works in India, and textile production in India and Egypt all declined in comparison to the amount produced by industrialized countries. Europe, Russia, Japan, and the United States out-produced non-industrialized areas.
5.5 Technology in the Industrial Age
The steam engine and internal combustion engine were the most significant and transforming technological innovations in arguably all of human history. Their ability to harness power/energy from fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, powered boats and trains in the 1800s. Transportation is no longer dependent upon the weather, and alongside the production of iron, stronger ships were made to accompany longer, more frequent journeys.
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Second Industrial Revolution shows significant changes from the beginning of the Industrial back in 1750. In the late 1800s, humans began to use chemicals, steel, precision machinery, and electricity to increase production.
Oil and petroleum used for energy, eventually powering automobiles. Steel allowed for taller buildings (among other things), further increasing urbanization. Electricity increased production, as factories could have longer hours, even during night time (helped with the light bulb). The railroad and steamship improved access to distant lands, especially those located in the interior part of a continent. For centuries, humanity explored via ocean because they relied on wind power and ocean currents for energy. However, with the advent of industrialization, energy came from fossil fuels.
With the railroad and steamship, countries now explored across large sections of land and on rivers, including going against the current in those rivers. The railroad and steamship led to migration into those lands because it made transportation quicker and safer, which led to conflict with people already living in those areas. It also allowed for trade to take place easier. |
The invention of the telegraph improved communication. The telegraph was quicker than previous methods of communication. It provided a safety net since those traveling abroad could communicate back to their original location.
5.6 Government's Role in Industrialization
The Ottomans and Egypt
Throughout the 1700s and 1800s, countries around the world industrialized in various ways. The Ottoman Empire attempted to industrialize through the Tanzimat Reforms, but they had serious problems with their government leaders. The Ottomans had over-expanded their influence, much like the old Roman Empire. Additional, the empire faced internal tension, partly due to the increase in nationalism among the numerous ethnic groups within their territory, that quickened its decline.
In Egypt, technically part of the Ottoman Empire, Muhammad Ali led the Mamluks to modernize education, taxes, and develop the cotton textile industry. Under his leadership, Egypt became an autonomous power despite its location within the boundaries of the aging Ottoman Empire. |
Meiji Japan
Japan had begun self-imposed isolation that lasted approximately 200 years (from roughly 1650-1850) because they valued their own traditions over foreign influence. Around 1850, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry, with the power of industrialization behind him, sailed to Japan and demanded trading rights. In response, Japan decided to modernize their defenses in order to protect against future threats and to safeguard their own traditions. This began the Meiji Restoration, which involves Japan's modernization and industrialization.
Japanese government leaders traveled to Western Europe, studying European ideas in order to adopt the practices they liked. As a result of those travels, Japan accomplished the following:
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This rapid industrialization of Japan allowed them to hold on to their autonomy up against European nations and the United States.
However, some in Japan did resist industrialization and the Meiji Restoration. Samurai were out of a job, and since occupation was tied closely to identity, it was not easily abolished. In fact, Japan forbade the Samurai from carrying a sword. Others wanted to continue to wear traditional clothing. Even with resistance, the Meiji Restoration continued.
However, some in Japan did resist industrialization and the Meiji Restoration. Samurai were out of a job, and since occupation was tied closely to identity, it was not easily abolished. In fact, Japan forbade the Samurai from carrying a sword. Others wanted to continue to wear traditional clothing. Even with resistance, the Meiji Restoration continued.
5.7 Economic Developments & Innovations
A Shift in Economic Philosophy
From roughly 1500-1750, Western European nations followed mercantilism as their dominant economic philosophy. In the mercantilist system, governments controlled the trade that occurred within their borders. Under this system, tariffs (taxes on imports/exports) were frequently imposed by governments. The goal was often for countries to export more than import. By 1750 and through 1900, Western European nations put aside mercantilism in favor of free trade and laissez-faire policies.
Adam Smith's book, The Wealth of Nations (1776), was written on laissez-faire capitalism and free markets. Throughout this period, his practices gained wider acceptance. The ideas of mercantilism and governments controlling trade began to fade away. His belief that the free market is guided by the law of supply and demand is still popular in modern times. |
Economic Innovations
Equipped with free trade government policies, businesses developed new approaches to and new practices in banking. Large businesses transformed into corporations with ownership from shareholders, with some even taking control over whole industries, thus becoming a monopoly.
The Stock Market allowed for individuals to buy and sell stocks or shares, thus becoming part owners of companies. Stockholders were not personally liable, thus it decreased risk for individuals while also increasing their opportunities to make a profit.
Some corporations operated in more than one country. These are called transnational businesses. One example of a transnational business is the HSBC bank, also known as the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, which is a British financial institution that conducted a lot of its business in China. HSBC made a lot of profit off the opium trading of the mid-1800s. Banks did continue to increase in number, especially with the advent of the insurance industry. |
Effects on Mass Culture
Industrialization resulted in a massive gap between the rich and everyone else. For the most part, though, everyone involved in industrialization became wealthier. As people became wealthier, including a growing middle class, they spent money on products unnecessary for survival. The continual improvement and growing efficiency of manufacturing increased the amount of consumer goods that were available.
Along with more money, people now had leisure time. Biking and boating become popular activities, as well as athletics. Enjoying professional sports became part of everyday life within industrialized areas. Other entertainment choices, such as music halls and parks, brought people together despite economic class designations.
Along with more money, people now had leisure time. Biking and boating become popular activities, as well as athletics. Enjoying professional sports became part of everyday life within industrialized areas. Other entertainment choices, such as music halls and parks, brought people together despite economic class designations.
5.8 Reactions to an Industrial Economy
Labor Unions
The Industrial Revolution produced major problems for workers. In addition to income inequality between factory workers and factory owners, workers were placed in dangerous working conditions with long working hours. In response to these harsh conditions, workers formed labor unions to collectively demand better pay, safer working conditions, and fewer working hours. They achieved these goals to varying degrees, but they did help to ban child labor and create public education systems.
Other reforms included establishing parks in urban areas for workers to enjoy after working hours, expanded suffrage (for males, not for women), and insurance. Germany, in the late 1800s, established state pension plans and public healthcare for the working class. Great Britain and the U.S. both expanded suffrage to non-land owning males in the 1800s.
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Alternative Ideologies
In addition to laborers expressing discontent over industrialization and the inequality that resulted from it, alternative ideologies emerged to counter capitalism and the free market. Utilitarianism, created by John Stuart Mill, advocated for the “greatest good for the greatest number of people.” This essentially means that decisions (economic, political, social) should benefit the majority of the population instead of just factory owners.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848. The work details how capitalism would always lead to class warfare. In fact, according to Marx, all of history is a struggle between the upper class (called the bourgeoisie) and the working class (called the proletariat). The only way to break the cycle of struggle is to overthrow the upper class and have no more class distinctions. Marx saw that capitalism provided space for the upper class, which owned the means of production, to exploit the working class, which had to be a part of the means of production. Later on, communism became associated with government ownership of industry.
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Government Responses
The
countries that first industrialized were Great Britain (and then the
rest of Western Europe), Russia, Japan, and the United States. Other
states, such as the Ottoman Empire and China's Qing Dynasty, did not
industrialize immediately. However, over time, they attempted to
industrialize in order to calm internal and external pressures,
especially from the already industrialized nations. These government
responses were met with varying degrees of success.
Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II reformed the military and tax collection, built roads, and created a postal service. After Mahmud, the Ottomans attempted more reforms, known as the Tanzimat Reforms. These included decreased government corruption, a secularized education system, codified laws that favored transnational businesses, and an updated legal system based on equality before the law. Unfortunately, women were not included in most reforms, so the practice of patriarchy continued. In their attempts at reform and industrialization, the Ottomans were too late to keep up with the more developed countries regarding industrialization. Sultan Abdulhamid ended the reforms and exiled the Young Turks, which were the primary advocates for reforms. Additionally, Abdulhamid was responsible for massacring hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Assyrian Christians.
The Qing Dynasty, which had controlled China since the early 1600s, experienced a great deal of internal and external pressure before 1900. European nations were carving up China for trade rights, and Great Britain battled China for the sale of opium. These events led China to attempt reforms. The Self-Strengthening Movement began as a way to modernize China for the industrial age. The civil service exam was abolished medical practices were reformed, and government corruption was curtailed. However, not everyone in China liked the new emphasis on reform; they were frustrated by the Qing Dynasty and the increasing foreign influence within. The Boxer Rebellion (1900) was an uprising against all things foreign in China, especially foreign religion and customs. The Boxers' desire was also to protect traditional Chinese culture. They saw the Qing Dynasty as weak, thus they wanted to overthrow the Qing in addition to banishing foreign influence from China. In response, the U.S., Great Britain, Japan, and others, who wanted to keep open the lucrative trade markets in China, sent troops into China to put down the rebellion. This further weakened the Qing Dynasty and increased foreign influence. The Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911.
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5.9 Society in the Industrial Age
Daily Life
In addition to industrialization's effects on politics and economics, society drastically changed. Everyday life changed dramatically for almost everyone because of industrialization. Families were separated during the day, and children of the working class often had jobs in factories or coal mines (instead of going to school) because the family needed that income. Laws would later outlaw child labor. Working life in a factory would be long and dangerous. Those in the working class would easily have 12-14 hour shifts, and even then, they often couldn’t afford luxury back in their tenement apartments.
Industrialization produced, along with cheap and not necessarily to live goods, new social classes. There were essentially three different classes that emerged as a result of industrialization: the working class, the middle class, and the super wealthy. The working class were the factory workers, and they were the poorest at the bottom of the class structure. They are sometimes associated with low-skilled jobs. Next up the ladder, were middle class, which are typically the managers, business owners, and those with skilled jobs. Lastly, the super wealthy (top 1%), owned the large corporations. It was extremely difficult to move from one social/economic class to another.
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The Role of Women
Women in different social and economic classes led radically different lives. Working class women faced obstacles and hardships in factories, as they were paid far less than men. Many women were frustrated with the work environment and treatment; some even helped promote better working conditions. Women of the middle class had a much different experience. They did not work in factories, but they also did not have complete freedom or equality with men. Middle class women were expected to stay home, take care of household duties, and focus on child-rearing.
A Cult of Domesticity
emerged that glorified the role women played as stay-at-home wives and
mothers. Some women, mostly from the middle class, advocated for
equality with men and organized in an attempt to gain equal rights. An example of this
would be the Seneca Falls Convention where women met to demand suffrage.
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Effects of Urbanization
People
moved to cities to work in factory jobs. Mass urbanization did have significant effects, such as
overcrowding, pollution, and disease. As more and more people moved to
the cities, poor, working class families lived in overcrowded apartments
(sometimes called tenements) and experienced unclean water
supplies along with a lack of proper sewage disposal. Consequently, this
caused diseases to infect many poor families. On the other hand, many
wealthier families that did not live in tenements experienced cleaner
and safer living conditions and more opportunities for leisure.
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Along with issues regarding poverty, crime, public health, and housing shortages, urbanization increased the amount of pollution
and the destruction of the environment. Air pollution
was caused by continual coal burning, and this only increased from the
1800s into the modern age. The reliance on coal burning for energy,
particularly electricity, negatively impacted the environment, in addition to those that require oxygen to breathe.
Water
pollution spread even more diseases, such as cholera and typhoid. Both
of those diseases became associated with poverty. In fact, the burning
of fossil fuels increased at record rates, and this increased CO2
emissions. This will have devastating effects on the environment into
the 20th and 21st centuries.
Even with the negative effects, industrialization caused the mass production of goods to become cheaper and more easily accessible. Was it worth it?